e3 — Revista de Economia, Empresas e Empreendedores na CPLP

TOURISM, INNOVATION AND TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT: CONTEMPORARY DYNAMICS AND SUSTAINABILITY CHALLENGES

Luís Filipe Seixas Sardinha — 2026-06-14

This editorial marks a particularly significant milestone in the trajectory of e3 – Journal of Economy, Business and Entrepreneurs in the CPLP, corresponding to the publication of the first regular issue following the journal’s inclusion in the Scopus database. This achievement represents an important recognition of the journal’s scientific quality, editorial rigor, and growing internationalization, while simultaneously reinforcing its commitment to the dissemination of knowledge relevant to both academic and professional communities. The articles included in this issue address current and multidisciplinary topics, reflecting some of the main challenges faced by institutions, students, and territories in a context of profound social, technological, and organizational transformation. Based on the contributions presented, three major thematic axes can be identified: institutional transformation, governance and innovation; students’ experiences, competencies and development trajectories; and sustainability, innovation and territorial development. Taken together, the published works highlight the importance of scientific research in understanding contemporary processes of change and in supporting informed responses to future challenges.

FROM TERRITORIALIZATION TO SMART EDUCATION: THE EMERGENCE OF THE 3RD GENERATION EDUCATIONAL CHARTER IN PORTUGAL

Luis Lobo — 2026-06-14

The article traces the historical evolution of educational planning in Portugal, from post-April 25, 1974 massification of schooling to the emergence of the 3rd-generation Educational Charter, anchored in the Smart Education paradigm. The 1974 revolution democratized access to education, supported by infrastructural investments like the Centenaries Plan (1941–1960), which built thousands of schools under centralized, uniform logics. Massification intensified territorial challenges—interior depopulation, emerging urban centers, and quality demands leading to the creation of the School Map (replaced by the Educational Charter in 2003, Decree-Law No. 7/2003). The 1st generation (2003) marked a shift toward territorialization, linking the school network to municipal planning via Municipal Education Councils and five-year reviews. However, it remained overly focused on physical rationalization and infrastructure, inheriting past edificatory logic with limited participation. The 2nd generation (2019, Decree-Law No. 21/2019) expanded diagnostics to socio-educational, demographic, and mobility variables, supported by tools like SACE and the DGEstE/IGeFE Guide (2021). Despite progress, it fails to capture real-time dynamics (digitalization, migrations, connectivity, teacher resilience) or fully enable collaborative, inter-municipal governance. The 3rd generation, proposed as a systemic, digital, and predictive platform, transcends the physical and municipal: it integrates learning ecosystems, interoperable data, AI, and multi-level participation. It aligns with international agendas (Smart Education, Learning Cities, Education 5.0) and models like ZEP (France), ZER (Spain), and Neighbourhood Learning Centres (Canada), emphasizing equity, collaborative networks, and community integration. The methodology combines normative analysis, literature review, and comparative case studies, summarized in an analytical grid highlighting the transition: from infrastructural to strategic, technocratic to collaborative, static to intelligent. The discussion underscores the urgency of overcoming asymmetries, redundancies, and low participation, advocating evidence-based governance, digital platforms, and continuous monitoring. Smart Education is framed as humanistic, sustainable, and public-value-oriented, with four pillars: territorial inclusion, environmental sustainability, intelligent digitalization, and consequential evaluation. The 3rd-generation Charter is not a mere update but a governance architecture positioning the school as a node of innovation, cohesion, and territorial development, responding to digital, ecological, and demographic transitions with intelligence, equity, and participation.

BEYOND PUBLIC AND PRIVATE: LEGAL STATUS AND OWNERSHIP AS DETERMINANTS OF INSTITUTIONAL DIFFERENTIATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Maria Elisabete Ferreira Fernandes — 2026-06-14

This paper examines how legal status and ownership contribute to the differentiation of higher education institutions (HEI), using the Portuguese higher education (HE) system as an empirical context. It aims to move beyond the conventional public–private dichotomy by demonstrating that legal status and ownership are key variables in explaining the diversity and behaviour of private HEI. The study adopts a qualitative research design based on documentary analysis, combining two analytical axes: legal-institutional mapping and ownership mapping. The analysis draws on official and institutional sources, including the Portuguese Official Gazette, the Justice Portal, and the SABI database, covering the period from 2004 to 2021. This allows for both cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis. The findings reveal that private HE is characterised by a high degree of organisational heterogeneity, with multiple legal forms of ownership coexisting. This diversity stems directly from the legal framework governing the sector. The study also shows that ownership in HE should be understood as a system of control rather than merely a formal property relationship. A central finding is the pivotal role of the founding entity in the Portuguese private HE sector, where institutions generally lack autonomous legal personality and effective control is exercised by founding entities that establish and own them.

RESTRUCTURING PRIVATE HIGHER EDUCATION IN PORTUGAL: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS

Maria Elisabete Ferreira Fernandes — 2026-06-14

In recent decades, private higher education (HE) in Portugal has undergone significant structural transformation, driven by regulatory reforms, demographic pressures, and increasing market competition. Among the strategies adopted by private higher education institutions (HEI), mergers and acquisitions (M&A) have emerged as a key mechanism for adaptation and consolidation, yet remain underexplored, particularly in private systems and longitudinal analyses. This study presents a longitudinal analysis of M&A processes between 2004/05 and 2021/22, based on a purpose-built database of legal acts and institutional restructuring events. Using qualitative content analysis, these processes are classified according to typologies from governance and HE literature, identifying patterns, key drivers and forms of institutional adaptation The findings show that M&A activity occurs in waves linked to major regulatory milestones, suggesting a close relationship between regulatory change and institutional restructuring dynamics. The most common forms include mergers and absorptions, acquisitions and ownership transfers, and institutional reconfigurations. These processes are primarily strategic responses to regulatory constraints and market pressures, enabling HEIs to optimize resources, maintain accreditation, and strengthen financial sustainability. This study contributes to the understanding of HE governance and institutional adaptation, offering a comprehensive system-level analysis of M&A in the private sector, with relevant implications for policymakers and institutional leaders.

ANALYSIS OF BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY AS A TOOL FOR ENHANCING AUDIT QUALITY

María Teresa Cuenca Jiménez — 2026-06-14

Auditing plays an indispensable role in ensuring the sustainable and proper functioning of organizations. Recent evidence suggests that blockchain technology can significantly contribute to overcoming current limitations associated with low audit quality. As a technology centered on data security and trust, blockchain offers a reliable environment for recording and verifying financial information, positioning it as a valuable resource for strengthening quality control in auditing processes. This study aims to conduct a bibliometric and systematic analysis of the scientific literature addressing terms such as blockchain and audit quality, based on publications indexed in the Web of Science database. The research addresses theoretical and methodological aspects, focusing on identifying countries with the highest scientific output, influential authors, leading journals, and the most used keywords. The results indicate that the most productive countries are the United States and China. The journals with the highest number of publications include IEEE Access, Electronics, IEEE Internet of Things Journal, and the International Journal of Accounting Information Systems. The analysis revealed five major trends demonstrating that blockchain enhances audit quality by improving security and privacy, facilitating regulatory compliance, increasing efficiency and effectiveness, strengthening IT competencies, and promoting sustainability, thus redefining the assurance paradigm.

DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES AND INTERNAL CONTROL SYSTEMS IN ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE MANAGEMENT: EVIDENCE FROM QUITTO-CORP S.A.

Karla Quishpe-Morales — 2026-06-14

Accounts receivable management is essential for the financial sustainability of companies operating under credit sales systems, as it directly affects liquidity, cash flow, and operational stability. In the context of digital transformation, technological tools and information systems play a key role in strengthening internal control and improving the efficiency of collection processes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the internal control system and the use of technological tools in accounts receivable management at Quitto-Corp S.A. during the 2024 period, to determine their impact on collection efficiency and managerial decision-making. The research followed a mixed-methods approach with a descriptive scope and a non-experimental cross-sectional design. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and a questionnaire based on the COSO II framework, applied to administrative and commercial personnel involved in credit and collection activities. The results reveal weaknesses in technological support for monitoring accounts receivable, including the absence of integrated systems, delays in accounting records, and reliance on manual procedures. These limitations affect information traceability and interdepartmental communication, contributing to an increase in overdue accounts. The study concludes that implementing integrated information systems and automated monitoring tools can strengthen internal control, reduce credit risk, and improve collection efficiency.

FROM CLASSROOM TO ENTERPRISE: AI ADOPTION AND DIGITAL EDUCATION

Flavio Tiago — 2026-06-14

The European Union's 2030 target of 75% enterprise AI adoption faces a structural paradox: adoption rates remain well below the trajectory, yet citizen surveys reveal broad awareness of the need for digital transformation. This paper argues that the adoption gap cannot be adequately explained by firm-level factors alone. Its objective is to determine the extent to which educational pipeline conditions constrain enterprise AI adoption in the EU and to extend the Technology-Organization-Environment (TOE) framework accordingly. Drawing on the TOE framework and integrating evidence from DESI 2025, the State of the Digital Decade 2025 report, and Flash Eurobarometer 564 on Future Needs in Digital Education (May 2025), we map a systemic constraint linking the educational pipeline to organizational AI capacity and environmental policy effectiveness. Using Portugal as an illustrative case, the analysis shows that a high degree of citizen-level awareness and institutional willingness to embrace AI in education coexist with material infrastructure deficits, gaps in teacher preparation, and low AI literacy in the adult workforce. These findings enrich the TOE framework by surfacing the educational-pipeline dimension as a structurally prior condition for enterprise AI adoption. Policy implications are drawn for the EU's Digital Decade agenda and for member states seeking to accelerate AI take-up among enterprises and SMEs. The paper contributes to TOE-based AI adoption research by linking organizational readiness to upstream education and skills formation processes.

PREPARATION AND PERCEIVED APTITUDE IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN PORTUGAL

Hugo Carvalho — 2026-06-14

The transition from upper secondary education to higher education is a critical moment in students’ educational trajectories in Portugal, within a context of diversified pathways and ongoing reforms in vocational training. This study examines the association between the type of secondary‑education pathway completed and, at the moment of entry into higher education, students’ perceived preparation and sense of aptitude among those from Scientific‑Humanistic and Vocational Education tracks. Based on a national sample of 1,044 students already enrolled in higher education, we applied association and group‑comparison tests (Chi‑square and Mann–Whitney), as well as binary and ordinal logistic regression models. The results suggest that students from Vocational Education show a higher probability of reporting “fully adequate” preparation (OR = 2.17) and of feeling “fully capable” (OR = 1.79), although with small effect sizes. In contrast, students from the Scientific‑Humanistic track concentrate more frequently in intermediate response categories, indicating less positive perceptions and greater initial ambivalence. Drawing on reports from the OECD, European Commission, Eurydice and Cedefop, implications for education policy are discussed, with particular emphasis on school guidance and articulation between levels of education. Overall, the findings indicate that secondary‑education pathways are associated with the subjective experience of transitioning into higher education, although with limited magnitude.

OPTIMISM IN YOUNG PEOPLE IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN PORTUGAL: AN ANALYSIS OF THE PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF LOT-R

Hugo Carvalho — 2026-06-14

The present study evaluated the psychometric properties of the Portuguese version of the LOT-R (Life Orientation Test-Revised) in a sample of 934 Portuguese university students. A descriptive quantitative design was adopted, with random sampling and data collection through a structured electronic questionnaire. The adequacy of the correlation matrix for factor analysis was confirmed by the KMO index = 0.70 (acceptable value) and by the Bartlett sphericity test (χ² = 1034.63; p < 0.0001), indicating significant correlations between the items. The internal consistency of the scale, assessed by Cronbach's alpha, reached 0.68, which is considered adequate for brief personality scales and consistent with previous studies conducted in Portugal (Laranjeira, 2008) and Brazil (Bandeira et al., 2002). The exploratory factor analysis, with two-factor extraction without rotation, corroborated the proposed theoretical structure, which differentiates Optimism and Non-pessimism. Factor 1 (Optimism) explained 39.18% of the total variance, while Factor 2 (Non-pessimism) contributed additionally, reaching 60.12% of the joint variance. The factor loadings of the positive items in Factor 1 ranged from 0.456 to 0.703. On the other hand, the negative items presented high loads in Factor 1 (0.430 to 0.742) and negative loads in Factor 2 (-0.312 to -0.620), confirming the two-factor pattern characteristic of the instrument. The results indicate that the Portuguese version of the LOT-R has satisfactory psychometric properties for use in university populations, supporting its validity as a measure of dispositional optimism. The observed two-factor structure is in line with international evidence (Marshall et al., 1992; Ribeiro et al., 2012; Bastianello et al., 2014), reinforcing the conceptual robustness and cross-cultural applicability of the instrument. These findings contribute to the study of positive dispositional variables which, together with motivational constructs such as implicit theories of intelligence (Dweck & Leggett, 1988), help predict patterns of adaptation and persistence at critical moments of academic transition.

ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTION OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN PARAGUAY

Juan Carlos Armijos — 2026-06-14

This study aims to understand the university entrepreneurial ecosystem in Paraguay by identifying institutional, psychological, and contextual factors that influence students’ entrepreneurial intention. A quantitative cross-sectional approach was used, employing the GUESSS survey along with confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling to validate an integrative model explaining the determinants of entrepreneurial intention. Key findings show that entrepreneurial self-efficacy is the strongest direct predictor of entrepreneurial intention (R² = 0.162), while resilience and external learning positively impact self-efficacy and subjective well-being, which in turn influence entrepreneurial intention. The university environment enhances subjective well-being, although well-being showed a marginally negative relationship with entrepreneurial intention. The entrepreneurial activation construct demonstrated low reliability and requires refinement. In conclusion, the validated model offers an integrated view of Paraguay’s entrepreneurial ecosystem, highlighting the need to strengthen psychological competencies and the university environment to foster entrepreneurial intention, and provides a foundation for designing contextualized and sustainable educational policies and programs.

STUDENT ABSENTEEISM IN UNIVERSITY ONLINE CLASSES: FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH STUDENTS FROM VULNERABLE CONTEXTS

Ruben Jeronimo Yedra — 2026-06-14

In higher education, online classes have opened new possibilities for access and academic continuity, but they have also highlighted challenges that affect the participation of many students. Understanding the reasons for their absence in these environments is fundamental to identifying barriers, inequalities, and ongoing needs. This descriptive research aimed to distinguish the personal and technical reasons for student absenteeism in computer science classes taught online. The study was conducted with a non-probabilistic, purposive sample, primarily composed of students from rural communities or locations far from urban areas. The findings show that student absenteeism in online environments was related to personal, economic, pedagogical, and technological factors, including the need to work, excessive workload, lack of comprehension of the content, stress from prolonged computer use, poor internet connection, lack of computer equipment, and the cost of mobile data. The results show that participation and retention in virtual classes does not depend solely on the student's willingness, but also on structural conditions that directly influence their academic trajectory.

IMPACT OF E-INVOICING ON TAX COMPLIANCE IN QUITO COMPANIES

Stefany Sanchez — 2026-06-14

The impact of electronic invoicing on the companies Páez, Florencia & Co. Cía. Ltda. and GMA Mosquera Aulestia S.A.S. was evidenced, through the application of surveys, the operational compatibility and the disposition of the personnel in the face of digital transformation were evaluated. The demographic data reflect that the respondents are in an age range between 26 and 39 years, which reveals a population with diverse skills, abilities and technological experience, which limits the ability to adapt to change, the main findings found are: it is observed in the data that 83.87% of the respondents consider that electronic invoicing improves the quality of operations, 51.61% of respondents stated that the adoption of this new mechanism was driven by the legal and tax regulations, issued by the regulatory entity and it was evident that pressure from competitors is not a determining factor or a significant driver for the implementation of electronic invoicing. An opportunity for improvement was in internal knowledge, where about 30% of respondents indicated that they can invest in training and obtain more knowledge, thereby strengthening mastery and optimizing processes.